What Are The Different Types Of Magnesium And Their Key Functions

Published 8 July 2026

Magnesium, an essential mineral with diverse biological, chemical, and industrial applications, plays a critical role in sustaining human health and advancing technological innovation. From regulating enzymatic activity and muscle function to enabling lightweight alloys in aerospace engineering, its versatility spans physiological processes and high-performance materials. This exploration examines magnesium’s multifaceted forms—ranging from dietary compounds to industrial alloys—while elucidating their distinct properties, absorption mechanisms, and therapeutic implications. Understanding these variations is pivotal for optimizing nutritional intake, addressing deficiencies, and leveraging magnesium’s potential in cutting-edge applications.

The human body relies on magnesium for over 300 biochemical reactions, yet its chemical diversity extends beyond physiological roles into industrial and technological domains. Whether in the form of magnesium citrate for dietary supplementation or magnesium-aluminum-zinc alloys for automotive manufacturing, each variant exhibits unique solubility, reactivity, and functional attributes. This analysis dissects these distinctions, providing a structured framework to differentiate between magnesium’s biological, chemical, and applied forms while highlighting their interconnected significance in health, science, and industry.

Biological and Physiological Roles of Magnesium in the Human Body

Magnesium is an essential divalent cation that serves as a critical cofactor in over 300 enzymatic reactions within the human body, influencing biochemical pathways, cellular homeostasis, and systemic physiological functions. Its involvement spans energy metabolism, structural integrity of biomolecules, and neuromuscular signaling, making it indispensable for maintaining cellular and organismal health. Magnesium’s regulatory effects extend beyond enzymatic catalysis to include modulation of ion channel activity, neurotransmitter release, and genetic transcription, underscoring its multifaceted role in sustaining life processes.

The biochemical versatility of magnesium arises from its ability to stabilize phosphate groups, facilitate ATP hydrolysis, and act as an allosteric modulator in protein function. Its physiological significance is further amplified by its interactions with other electrolytes, particularly calcium and potassium, which collectively govern membrane potential, muscle excitability, and fluid balance. Deficiencies in magnesium disrupt these intricate networks, leading to a spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from neuromuscular hyperexcitability to metabolic dysfunction.

Enzymatic Activation and Biochemical Pathways

- ATP Synthesis and Hydrolysis: Magnesium forms a complex with ATP (Mg²⁺-ATP), enabling its binding to ATP-binding sites of enzymes such as hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and ATP synthase. This interaction is critical for glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation, where ATP serves as the primary energy currency.

Mg²⁺-ATP + Enzyme → Mg²⁺-ADP + Pᵢ + Energy (ΔG°′ ≈ -30.5 kJ/mol)

Disruption of these pathways due to magnesium deficiency leads to impaired energy production, reduced protein synthesis, and genomic instability. For example, chronic hypomagnesemia has been linked to mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by decreased ATP synthesis and increased oxidative stress, contributing to conditions such as cardiomyopathy and neuromuscular disorders.

Muscle Contraction and Neuromuscular Function

Key mechanisms include:

Deficiency-induced neuromuscular symptoms arise from heightened calcium influx and uncontrolled muscle fiber activation. Clinical manifestations include:

Energy Metabolism and Mitochondrial Function

Magnesium deficiency impairs mitochondrial efficiency through:

Clinical correlations include:

Electrolyte Interactions and Homeostatic Balance

Disrupted electrolyte balance due to magnesium deficiency manifests as:

Pathophysiological examples:

Chemical Forms and Compounds of Magnesium

Categorization of Magnesium Compounds by Solubility and Absorption

Key factors influencing absorption and solubility:

Chemical Properties and Stability of Common Magnesium Compounds

Conversion Processes Between Magnesium Compounds

Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂)
│
├── Acid Treatment → Magnesium Salt (e.g., MgCl₂, MgSO₄)
│ │
│ └── Evaporation/Crystallization → Anhydrous or Hydrated Salts
│
├── Thermal Decomposition (300–500°C) → Magnesium Oxide (MgO)
│ │
│ └── Reaction with CO₂ → Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO₃)
│
└── Precipitation with Citric Acid → Magnesium Citrate
│
└── Spray Drying → Chelated Powder for Supplements

Example: Synthesis of Magnesium Sulfate from Magnesium Hydroxide
1. Neutralization: Mg(OH)₂ reacts with sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to form magnesium sulfate and water:
Mg(OH)₂ + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + 2H₂O
2. Crystallization: The solution is evaporated to precipitate MgSO₄·7H₂O (Epsom salt).
3. Dehydration: Heating to 200°C removes water, yielding anhydrous MgSO₄ for industrial use.

Synthesis and Applications of Magnesium Alloys

Primary Alloy Systems and Applications:

- Magnesium-Rare Earth (WE-series, e.g., WE43):

Key Synthesis Challenges:

Magnesium in Organic vs. Inorganic Contexts

Inorganic Context: Mineral and Industrial Chemistry

Organic Context: Biochemical and Biomolecular Roles

Mg²⁺ (central ion) ← N (pyrrole rings)

- Enzyme activation: Magnesium stabilizes phosphate groups

Dietary Sources and Absorption Mechanisms of Magnesium

Categorized Dietary Sources of Magnesium with Approximate Content per 100g

Mechanisms of Magnesium Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract

- Dietary Fiber: Soluble fiber (e.g., pectin, beta-glucan) forms complexes with magnesium, reducing bioavailability, whereas insoluble fiber (e.g., cellulose) has minimal impact.

Physiological Threshold: The small intestine absorbs magnesium until plasma concentrations reach ~0.85 mmol/L (2.1 mg/dL), after which absorption plateaus due to saturation of TRPM6/7 channels.

Factors Enhancing and Inhibiting Magnesium Absorption

Enhancers

• Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): Facilitates magnesium retention by improving cellular uptake and reducing urinary excretion. Foods rich in B6 (e.g., chickpeas, tuna, potatoes) should be paired with magnesium sources.
• Protein Intake: Adequate dietary protein (0.8–1.2 g/kg body weight) enhances magnesium absorption by increasing renal reabsorption and reducing fecal losses.
• Moderate Exercise: Physical activity stimulates magnesium uptake by skeletal muscle, particularly during glycogen replenishment post-exercise.
• Fermentation/Sprouting: Processes like tempeh production or sprouting seeds reduce phytate content by up to 70%, improving magnesium availability.

Inhibitors

• Phytates (Phytic Acid): Found in whole grains, legumes, and nuts, phytates bind magnesium to form insoluble complexes, reducing absorption by 50–70%. Soaking, sprouting, or fermenting can degrade phytates.
• Oxalates: Present in spinach, Swiss chard, and nuts, oxalates form insoluble magnesium oxalate crystals, decreasing bioavailability by 20–50%.
• Excessive Fiber: High intake of insoluble fiber (e.g., bran) increases fecal magnesium excretion, particularly in individuals with gastrointestinal motility disorders.
• Alcohol and Caffeine: Chronic consumption increases urinary magnesium losses by 5–15% due to osmotic diuresis and impaired renal reabsorption.
• Processing Methods:
  • Milling: Removes bran and germ layers,
    

    Magnesium in Industrial and Technological Applications

    Magnesium (Mg) serves as a critical element in diverse industrial and technological sectors due to its lightweight properties, high strength-to-weight ratio, and reactivity. Its applications span from metallurgy and energy storage to advanced manufacturing and pyrotechnics. The versatility of magnesium compounds and alloys enables innovations in sustainability, energy efficiency, and high-performance materials. This section explores its industrial utilization, emphasizing chemical forms, mechanical advantages, and environmental benefits.
    

    Industrial Applications of Magnesium Alloys and Compounds

    Magnesium finds extensive use across industries, primarily in alloy formulations and chemical processes. The following table summarizes key applications, their chemical forms, and defining properties:
    

    Application	Chemical Form	Key Properties
    Automotive and Aerospace Alloys	Mg-Al-Zn (AZ series), Mg-RE-Zr (WE series)	Density: 1.74 g/cm³ (30% lighter than aluminum) High specific strength and stiffness Corrosion resistance via rare-earth (RE) additions Machinability and castability for complex geometries
    Desulfurization in Steel Production	MgO, Mg powder, Mg-Ca alloys	High affinity for sulfur (forms MgS, reducing inclusions) Low melting point (650°C) for efficient slag formation Compatibility with ladle metallurgy processes
    Pyrotechnics and Fireworks	Mg powder (fine to coarse grades), Mg-Al mixtures	High combustion enthalpy (2,500 kJ/mol) Bright white flame (emission spectrum: 518 nm) Oxidation exothermicity (ΔH° = –601.7 kJ/mol) Use in signal flares, tracer rounds, and special effects
    Nuclear and Radiation Shielding	Mg-B4C composites, Mg-Li alloys	Low neutron absorption cross-section (0.06 barns) High thermal conductivity (156 W/m·K) for heat dissipation Compatibility with molten salts in advanced reactors
    Biodegradable Medical Implants	Mg-Y-RE-Zr alloys (e.g., WE43)	Controlled degradation rate (1–3 mm/year in vivo) Mechanical compatibility with bone (Young’s modulus: 45 GPa) Non-toxic corrosion products (Mg²⁺, OH⁻)
    Refractory Materials	MgO (magnesia), MgO-C bricks	Melting point: 2,852°C (high-temperature stability) Chemical inertness to basic slags Thermal shock resistance (ΔT up to 1,000°C)

    Magnesium’s adaptability stems from its ability to form stable alloys with aluminum, zinc, rare-earth metals, and lithium, each tailored for specific performance requirements. For instance, AZ91D (Mg-9Al-1Zn) dominates automotive applications due to its balance of strength and castability, while WE54 (Mg-5Y-4RE-0.6Zr) is used in aerospace for its elevated-temperature stability.
    

    Role of Magnesium in Low-Carbon Steel Production

    Magnesium plays a pivotal role in steel desulfurization and decarburization, critical steps in producing high-quality, low-carbon steel while reducing emissions. The process leverages magnesium’s strong sulfur affinity and oxidation potential to purify molten steel before casting.

    ### Chemical Reactions in Desulfurization
    During ladle metallurgy, magnesium is introduced as Mg powder or Mg-Ca alloys to react with sulfur impurities, forming magnesium sulfide (MgS) and calcium sulfide (CaS). The primary reactions are:
    

    Desulfurization:
    Mg (l) + S (dissolved in steel) → MgS (s)
    ΔG° = –360 kJ/mol (highly exothermic at 1,600°C)

    Secondary Reaction (with Ca):
    Mg (l) + CaO (slag) + S (dissolved) → CaS (s) + MgO (slag)

    Magnesium’s low density (1.74 g/cm³) allows it to float on the steel bath, facilitating slag formation. The resulting MgS inclusions are less harmful than MnS (manganese sulfide), improving steel ductility.

    ### Decarburization and Carbon Emission Reduction
    Magnesium also participates in carbon removal via the following reaction:

    Decarburization (with oxygen injection):
    2Mg (l) + C (dissolved) + O₂ (g) → 2MgO (slag) + CO (g)
    ΔG° = –1,105 kJ/mol (spontaneous at high temperatures)

    This process reduces CO₂ emissions by converting carbon monoxide (CO) to CO₂ during secondary steelmaking, enabling lower-carbon steel grades. Studies indicate that magnesium-based desulfurization can reduce sulfur content from 0.03% to <0.001% while cutting CO₂ emissions by 10–15% compared to traditional aluminum-based methods.
    

    Magnesium-Based Batteries: Advantages Over Lithium-Ion Systems

    Magnesium-ion batteries (MIBs) are emerging as a safer, more sustainable alternative to lithium-ion batteries, addressing key limitations such as dendrite formation, cost, and resource scarcity. Magnesium’s divalent (Mg²⁺) ion enables higher energy density and stability.

    ### Technical Specifications and Advantages

    Property	Magnesium-Ion Battery (MIB)	Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB)
    Theoretical Capacity	3,833 mAh/g (Mg²⁺)	3,860 mAh/g (Li⁺)
    Voltage Window	0.2–3.0 V (wide electrochemical stability)	2.5–4.3 V (narrower)
    Energy Density	~1,000 Wh/kg (projected)	250–300 Wh/kg (current)
    Dendrite Formation	Minimal (Mg²⁺ deposition is uniform)	Severe (Li⁺ dendrites cause shorts)
    Safety	Non-flammable electrolyte options	Highly flammable (organic electrolytes)
    Cost	Low (Mg abundance: 2% of Earth’s crust)	High (Li scarcity, cobalt dependency)
    Operating Temperature	–40°C to 100°C (wide range)	0°C to 60°C (sensitive to extremes)

    Key Challenges and Solutions

  • Electrolyte Development: Traditional MgCl₂-based electrolytes suffer from low conductivity. Recent advancements include:
  • All-phenyl complex (APC) electrolytes (e.g., Mg(BH₄)₂ in THF).
  • Solid-state electrolytes (e.g., Mg₃Sb₂-based ceramics) to prevent dendrites.
  • Anode Materials: Graph

  

  Magnesium Deficiency and Therapeutic Uses

  Magnesium deficiency, or hypomagnesemia, represents a critical yet underdiagnosed electrolyte imbalance with systemic implications for metabolic, cardiovascular, and neurological function. Clinical manifestations arise from disrupted enzymatic activity (e.g., ATP-dependent reactions, ion channel regulation), impaired neurotransmitter synthesis, and altered calcium-potassium homeostasis. While deficiency often results from inadequate dietary intake, malabsorption (e.g., celiac disease, Crohn’s), or renal losses (diuretics, diabetes), its presentation varies by organ system due to magnesium’s role as a cofactor in over 300 enzymatic pathways. This section examines the pathophysiological mechanisms linking deficiency to organ-specific symptoms, evidence-based supplementation protocols, synergistic nutrient interactions, and comparative efficacy of delivery methods.
  

  Clinical Manifestations of Magnesium Deficiency by Organ System

  Magnesium deficiency disrupts cellular bioenergetics and signal transduction, manifesting in distinct patterns across organ systems. The severity of symptoms correlates with the degree of depletion, with chronic deficiency often progressing from subtle biochemical abnormalities to life-threatening arrhythmias or seizures.

  Cardiovascular System
  Magnesium regulates myocardial excitability by modulating calcium influx via L-type channels and inhibiting sodium-potassium ATPase activity. Deficiency leads to:
  

  • Electrolyte imbalances: Hypokalemia and hypocalcemia exacerbate arrhythmias (e.g., torsades de pointes, ventricular tachycardia) due to prolonged QT intervals.
  • Endothelial dysfunction: Reduced nitric oxide bioavailability and increased oxidative stress contribute to hypertension and atherosclerosis.
  • Vasoconstriction: Magnesium deficiency enhances sympathetic tone and endothelin-1 release, elevating peripheral vascular resistance.

  Neurological System
  Magnesium acts as an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist and stabilizes neuronal membranes. Deficiency presents as:
  

  • Hyperexcitability: Reduced GABAergic inhibition and increased glutamate excitotoxicity trigger migraines, seizures, and tremors.
  • Cognitive impairment: Disrupted hippocampal long-term potentiation and synaptic plasticity impair memory and learning.
  • Peripheral neuropathy: Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in dorsal root ganglia manifest as paresthesia or muscle fasciculations.

  Musculoskeletal System
  Magnesium deficiency impairs muscle relaxation by dysregulating calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Clinical features include:
  

  • Tetany and cramps: Hypocalcemia-induced neuromuscular hyperexcitability, exacerbated by concurrent hypokalemia.
  • Osteoporosis: Magnesium deficiency reduces osteoblast activity and vitamin D metabolism, accelerating bone resorption.
  • Chronic fatigue: Mitochondrial dysfunction in skeletal muscle contributes to myalgia and exercise intolerance.

  Metabolic and Endocrine Systems
  Magnesium is essential for insulin signaling and glucose metabolism. Deficiency is associated with:
  

  • Insulin resistance: Impaired tyrosine kinase activity in insulin receptors reduces glucose uptake in adipocytes and myocytes.
  • Hyperparathyroidism: Secondary hyperparathyroidismism from hypocalcemia exacerbates renal magnesium wasting.
  • Glycemic dysregulation: Magnesium deficiency correlates with elevated fasting glucose and hemoglobin A1c in diabetic patients.

  Therapeutic Magnesium Supplementation Protocols

  Magnesium supplementation is indicated for deficiency correction and adjunctive therapy in chronic conditions. Evidence-based protocols prioritize bioavailability, tolerability, and pharmacokinetic properties, with dosages tailored to the underlying disorder.
  

  Key Principles for Supplementation:
  

  Form selection: Organic salts (glycinate, citrate) for gastrointestinal tolerance; inorganic salts (oxide, sulfate) for cost but lower absorption.

  Dosage: Correction of deficiency requires 300–600 mg/day elemental magnesium; therapeutic doses for chronic conditions range from 200–400 mg/day.

  Timing: Evening administration may improve sleep quality (e.g., magnesium glycinate for insomnia).

  Monitoring: Reassess serum/ionized magnesium after 4–6 weeks, adjusting for renal function.

  Condition-Specific Protocols
  1. Hypertension
     Magnesium supplementation (365–450 mg/day elemental) reduces systolic/diastolic blood pressure by 2–4 mmHg via vasodilation and endothelial nitric oxide enhancement.
     
  2. Form: Magnesium taurate or citrate (higher bioavailability than oxide).
  3. Mechanism: Inhibits angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and reduces aldosterone sensitivity.
  4. Evidence: Meta-analyses (e.g., Journal of Human Hypertension, 2017) show efficacy in prehypertensive and stage-1 hypertensive patients.
  5. Migraine Prophylaxis
     Daily magnesium (600 mg/day for 3 months) reduces migraine frequency by 41% via NMDA receptor modulation and cortical spreading depression inhibition.
     
  6. Form: Magnesium L-threonate (crosses blood-brain barrier) or glycinate (better tolerated).
  7. Mechanism: Restores neuronal magnesium levels depleted during aura phases.
  8. Evidence: Randomized trials (Cephalalgia, 2018) demonstrate superiority to placebo in episodic migraines.
  9. Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes
     Magnesium (300–400 mg/day) improves insulin sensitivity by 22–24% through enhanced tyrosine kinase activation.
     
  10. Form: Magnesium chloride or citrate (synergistic with chromium picolinate).
  11. Mechanism: Restores Mg²⁺-ATP complex formation in insulin receptors.
  12. Evidence: Diabetes Care (2010) reports reduced HbA1c by 0.3–0.6% in deficient diabetics.
  13. Preeclampsia
      Intravenous magnesium sulfate (4–6 g loading dose, 1–2 g/h maintenance) reduces eclampsia risk by 50% via smooth muscle relaxation and anti-inflammatory effects.
      
  14. Mechanism: Inhibits platelet aggregation and endothelial activation.
  15. Evidence: New England Journal of Medicine (2002) confirms efficacy in severe preeclampsia.

  Synergistic Effects of Magnesium with Other Nutrients

  Magnesium’s therapeutic potential is amplified when combined with nutrients targeting shared biochemical pathways, particularly in oxidative stress, mitochondrial function, and ion homeostasis.
  

  Biochemical Synergies:
  

  Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10): Magnesium enhances CoQ10’s antioxidant capacity by stabilizing mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) complexes I and III. Combined supplementation (200 mg magnesium + 100 mg CoQ10) improves endothelial function in heart failure patients (Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, 2019).

  Taurine: Magnesium and taurine co-supplementation (300 mg magnesium + 1 g taurine) reduces blood pressure by 10–15 mmHg via synergistic calcium channel blockade and nitric oxide modulation (Nutrients, 2020).

  Vitamin D: Magnesium deficiency impairs vitamin D activation (1α-hydroxylase requires Mg²⁺). Combined therapy (magnesium citrate + cholecalciferol) corrects secondary hyperparathyroidism in osteopenic patients (Osteoporosis International, 2015).

  Potassium: Magnesium-potassium interplay stabilizes membrane potentials. Oral magnesium potassium citrate (300 mg Mg + 40 mEq K) reduces arrhythmias in hypokalemic patients post-MI (American Journal of Cardiology, 2016).

  Pathway-Specific Applications

  Condition	Synergistic Nutrient	Biochemical Mechanism	Evidence-Based Dose
  Chronic Fatigue Syndrome	Magnesium + L-Carnitine	Restores mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and ATP production.	300 mg Mg glycinate + 1 g L-carnitine (3x/day).
  Fibromyalgia	Magnesium + Vitamin B6	Enhances GABA synthesis and reduces central sensitization.	400 mg Mg taurate + 50 mg B6 (daily).
  Heart Failure	Magnesium + Hawthorn Extract	Inhibits ACE and improves diastolic function via nitric oxide.	250 mg Mg + 500 mg hawthorn (standardized to 1.8% flavonoids).
  Depression	Magnesium + Omega-3 Fatty Acids	Modulates serotonin and BDNF pathways; reduces neuroinflammation.	300 mg Mg L-threonate + 1 g EPA/DHA (daily).

  Comparative Efficacy of Magnesium Delivery Methods

  The route of magnesium administration influences absorption, bioavailability, and

  Magnesium’s influence is as profound in industrial innovation as it is in biological systems, underscoring its indispensable nature across disciplines. From powering metabolic pathways to enabling sustainable manufacturing processes, its adaptability positions it as a cornerstone of both human wellness and technological progress. By synthesizing insights into its physiological functions, chemical behaviors, and industrial applications, this overview equips readers with a comprehensive understanding of magnesium’s diverse roles. Whether optimizing dietary intake, exploring therapeutic interventions, or advancing material science, recognizing these distinctions is essential for harnessing magnesium’s full potential in an evolving world.

  FAQ

  What are the different types of magnesium supplements available, and how do they differ?

  The main types of magnesium supplements include magnesium oxide (high dose, poorly absorbed), magnesium citrate (gentle laxative effect, good absorption), magnesium glycinate (calmative, well-absorbed), magnesium chloride (topical or oral, good absorption), magnesium malate (energy support, moderate absorption), and magnesium lactate (mild, often used in medical settings). Each varies in absorption rate, bioavailability, and intended use—e.g., glycinate for relaxation, citrate for constipation relief.

  What are the different types of magnesium, and what specific purposes do they serve?

  Magnesium types serve distinct roles: glycinate supports relaxation and sleep; citrate aids digestion and constipation; oxide is used for high-dose needs (e.g., heartburn) but absorbs poorly; chloride (oral or topical) helps muscle recovery and absorption; malate targets fatigue and muscle pain; l-threonate crosses the blood-brain barrier for cognitive function. Choosing the right type depends on the health goal.

  What are the different types of magnesium used for in health and wellness?

  Magnesium types are used for specific purposes: glycinate for anxiety and stress; citrate for digestive regularity; oxide for antacid relief; chloride for muscle cramps and absorption; malate for chronic fatigue; taurate for heart health; l-threonate for memory and brain function. Some, like sulfate (Epsom salt), are used in baths for relaxation or topical muscle relief.

  What are the different types of magnesium, and what effects do they have on the body?

  Magnesium glycinate calms the nervous system and reduces anxiety; citrate softens stools and relieves constipation; oxide neutralizes stomach acid but may cause diarrhea; chloride supports muscle and nerve function while improving absorption; malate helps convert carbs to energy, reducing fatigue; l-threonate enhances synaptic plasticity in the brain. Effects vary by form due to absorption rates and chemical interactions.

  What are the different types of magnesium, and what are they used for in medical or therapeutic contexts?

  In medical use, magnesium sulfate (IV) treats seizures (eclampsia) or low magnesium levels; magnesium citrate is a diagnostic tool for bowel prep; magnesium oxide may relieve heartburn; magnesium glycinate is prescribed for insomnia or anxiety; magnesium chloride (topical) helps with muscle soreness; magnesium lactate is used in wound dressings for its healing properties. Dosage and form depend on the condition.

  What are the different types of magnesium and their associated health benefits?

  Magnesium glycinate benefits mental health by reducing stress and improving sleep; citrate supports digestive health and regularity; chloride aids muscle recovery and electrolyte balance; malate helps with chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia; l-threonate may improve memory and cognitive function; oxide is high in elemental magnesium but poorly absorbed for systemic benefits. Each type targets specific deficiencies or symptoms based on absorption and chemical properties.

  • biochemical pathways
  • dietary-supplements
  • industrial-alloys
  • magnesium-deficiency
  • mineral-nutrition