What Is Sufism Exploring Its Spiritual Essence And Legacy

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Sufism represents the mystical dimension of Islam, a profound spiritual tradition that transcends doctrinal boundaries to explore the direct experience of the Divine. Emerging from the early Islamic Golden Age, it synthesized elements of pre-Islamic mysticism, philosophical inquiry, and devotional practices into a path emphasizing divine love, inner purification, and union with God (tawhid). Unlike orthodox interpretations, Sufism prioritizes the heart’s journey over rigid legalism, blending ascetic discipline with ecstatic expressions like poetry, music, and dance—tools designed to dissolve the ego and reveal spiritual truths. Its influence extends beyond religious confines, shaping art, literature, and cultural identity across the Islamic world and beyond.

The tradition’s evolution—from the solitary contemplations of early ascetics like Rabi’a al-Adawiyya to the institutionalized orders of the Naqshbandi, Chishti, and Mevlevi—reflects a dynamic interplay between personal devotion and communal practice. Central to Sufism are metaphysical concepts such as wahdat al-wujud (the unity of existence) and fana (annihilation in God), articulated through the works of luminaries like Ibn Arabi and Rumi, whose writings remain foundational. Rituals such as dhikr (remembrance circles) and sama (spiritual music) serve as bridges between the human and the divine, embodying the Sufi belief that spirituality is both an intellectual pursuit and an embodied experience. This tradition continues to resonate as a testament to the enduring quest for transcendence within Islamic thought.

what is sufism

Historical Foundations and Origins of Sufism

Sufism emerged as a mystical dimension of Islam, deeply rooted in both pre-Islamic spiritual traditions and the evolving theological landscape of early Islamic civilization. Its development was not an isolated phenomenon but a synthesis of ascetic practices, philosophical inquiries, and esoteric interpretations of the Quran and Hadith. The integration of Zoroastrian dualism, Greek Neoplatonism, and Christian monasticism with Islamic jurisprudence and theology created a unique framework for understanding divine proximity (uns). This section explores the pre-Islamic influences that shaped Sufism, traces the contributions of foundational figures before the 10th century, and examines its institutionalization during the Abbasid era, culminating in the establishment of structured Sufi orders.

Pre-Islamic Influences on Early Sufi Thought

The mystical underpinnings of Sufism were not born in a vacuum but drew from older spiritual and philosophical systems that predated Islam. Zoroastrianism, with its emphasis on purification through asceticism and the struggle between light and darkness, provided a conceptual foundation for Sufi ideas of spiritual refinement and divine struggle. Similarly, Greek philosophy—particularly Neoplatonism—introduced hierarchical ontologies of emanation, where the divine (the One) descends into the material world through a series of hypostases. This influenced Sufi cosmology, particularly in the works of later thinkers like Al-Farabi and Ibn Arabi, who adapted these ideas to Islamic monotheism.

Christian monasticism, with its emphasis on hesychasm (interior silence) and philokalia (love of the divine), also left an indelible mark. Early Sufis adopted practices such as dhikr (remembrance of God) and riyada (ascetic discipline), which paralleled Christian contemplative traditions. However, Sufism distinguished itself by grounding these practices in the Quranic narrative of tawhid (absolute oneness of God) rather than trinitarian or Christological frameworks.

"The Sufi is he who purifies his heart from all that is other than God, so that he may become a mirror reflecting the divine attributes." —Attributed to early Sufi masters, reflecting the synthesis of Zoroastrian purification rites and Neoplatonic mirror symbolism.
The Abbasid translation movement (8th–9th centuries) further facilitated this cross-pollination by making Greek, Persian, and Syriac texts accessible to Arab scholars. Works like the Enneads of Plotinus and the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi were studied alongside Islamic texts, creating a fertile ground for mystical speculation.

Timeline of Key Figures and Contributions (7th–10th Centuries)

The formative period of Sufism saw a succession of ascetics, poets, and scholars who systematized its doctrines. Below is a chronological overview of pivotal figures whose teachings laid the groundwork for later Sufi orders:
  • Hasan al-Basri (d. 728 CE)
  • A student of Ibn Abbas and a companion of the Prophet’s generation (tabi’un), Hasan al-Basri is often considered the first Sufi in the historical record.
  • Emphasized zuhd (asceticism) and wara’ (piety) as paths to divine proximity, rejecting material excess as a distraction from spiritual truth.
  • His rejection of worldly wealth and political influence set a precedent for Sufi detachment from state power.
  • Rabi’a al-Adawiyya (d. 801 CE)
  • A female mystic whose poetry and teachings transcended gender norms of the time.
  • Introduced the concept of ishq (divine love) as an end in itself, not merely a means to salvation.
  • Her famous question, "If I worship God from fear of Hell, I am a miser before Him; if I worship Him for hope of Paradise, I am a mercenary before Him. But if I worship Him for His sake alone, then I am certain that I am a true believer," became foundational for Sufi theology of ma’rifa (gnosis).
  • Ma’ruf al-Karkhi (d. 815 CE)
  • A disciple of Sufyan al-Thawri, Ma’ruf expanded on the idea of fana’ (annihilation in God) and baqa’ (subsistence in God).
  • His emphasis on the heart (qalb) as the locus of divine knowledge contrasted with the legalistic focus of early Islamic scholarship.
  • Known for his cryptic sayings, such as "The heart has its own eyes, through which it sees truth not perceived by the bodily eyes."
  • Sari al-Saqati (d. 867 CE)
  • A student of Ma’ruf, Sari formalized the concept of hal (spiritual states) and maqam (stations), creating a taxonomy of the soul’s journey toward God.
  • His teachings on dhikr (remembrance) as a transformative practice influenced later orders like the Naqshbandi and Chishti.
  • Al-Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910 CE)
  • Often called the "Pole of the Age" (Qutb al-Zaman), Junayd synthesized earlier Sufi doctrines into a coherent system.
  • Introduced the concept of wujud (existence) as a participation in the divine essence, distinguishing Sufism from both Ash’ari rationalism and Mu’tazili theology.
  • His critique of extreme asceticism (zuhd) and his advocacy for a balanced spiritual path (tariqa) shaped the ashrafiyya (noble Sufi) tradition.
Junayd’s era marked the transition from individual asceticism to the emergence of structured Sufi communities, laying the groundwork for the institutionalization of orders in the following centuries.

Comparison of Early Sufi Orders: Foundations and Core Practices

By the 12th century, Sufism had evolved into organized tariqas (orders), each with distinct geographical origins, spiritual methodologies, and institutional structures. The table below compares three of the most influential orders that emerged during this period:
Order Founding Date Geographical Origin Founder Core Practices Distinctive Contributions
Naqshbandi 14th century (formalized) Central Asia (Transoxiana) Baha-ud-Din Naqshband (d. 1389)
  • Muraqaba (silent contemplation)
  • Tasawwuf al-Akhlaq (ethical Sufism)
  • Silsila (chain of spiritual transmission)
  • Qawl (utterance-based dhikr)
 Emphasis on sharia compliance and preservation of hadith traditions; influenced by Khwarazmian mysticism.
Chishti 12th century India (originated in Chisht, Afghanistan) Khwaja Abu Ishaq Shami (d. 1240)
  • Sama’ (musical devotional gatherings)
  • Fana’-fi-Allah (annihilation in God)
  • Kashf (unveiling of divine truths)
  • Urs (annual festivals celebrating saints)
 Syncretic approach, integrating Hindu and Buddhist elements; known for pir-o-murid (master-disciple) relationships.
Qadiriyya 12th century North Africa (Maghreb) Abu al-Hasan al-Qushayri (d. 1072)
  • Tajdid (spiritual renewal)
  • Ihsan (excellence in

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    Core Beliefs and Philosophical Principles of Sufism

    Sufism’s philosophical depth lies in its reinterpretation of Islamic theology through experiential mysticism, where metaphysical concepts transcend literalist interpretations of scripture. Central to Sufi thought is the reconfiguration of divine unity (tawhid), ethical purification (zuhd), and the dynamic relationship between the human soul and the Divine. Unlike orthodox Sunni and Shia traditions, which often emphasize legalistic adherence to sharia, Sufism integrates metaphysical speculation (‘irfān) with practical spirituality, challenging conventional boundaries of Islamic doctrine. This section explores Sufi metaphysics—particularly wahdat al-wujud (unity of being) and wahdat al-shuhud (unity of witnessing)—while contrasting these with orthodox theological frameworks, using primary sources from Ibn Arabi, Al-Hallaj, and Al-Ghazali.

    Tawhid in Sufism: Divine Unity Beyond Orthodox Interpretations

    In orthodox Islam, tawhid (the absolute oneness of God) is primarily a theological assertion rejecting polytheism (shirk) and affirming God’s transcendence (tanzih). Sunni and Shia scholars, such as Al-Ash’ari and Al-Maturidi, defend tawhid through kalam (speculative theology), arguing for God’s incomprehensibility (ghayb) while preserving His attributes (sifat) as distinct from creation. Sufis, however, expand tawhid into an existential and metaphysical experience, where divine unity is not merely a creed but a lived reality.

    Ibn Arabi’s Fusus al-Hikam ("The Bezels of Wisdom") exemplifies this shift. In the First Bezels, he writes:
    > "The Oneness of God is not a matter of words but of being. He who knows the truth of Oneness knows that the world is but a veil lifted from the face of the Real, and the Real is the only existent."

    Here, Ibn Arabi collapses the distinction between God and creation in the realm of ultimate truth (haqiqah), arguing that all existence is an epiphany of the Divine. This contrasts with orthodox tawhid, which maintains a strict separation between the Creator and creation. For Ibn Arabi, tawhid is not negating multiplicity but recognizing that multiplicity is a manifestation of the One—an idea that would later provoke legal condemnations, such as those leveled against him by Ash’ari scholars for "pantheistic" tendencies.

    The orthodox response to such interpretations was often hostile. Al-Ghazali, though sympathetic to Sufism in Ihya Ulum al-Din, warned against metaphysical excesses that could undermine tawhid. He wrote:
    > "The Sufi who claims that ‘I am God’ (ana al-haqq) is a heretic, for this negates the distinction between the Creator and the creature."

    Yet, Sufis like Ibn Arabi distinguished between shirk (idolatry) and wahdat al-wujud, asserting that the latter was a gnostic truth (haqiqah) beyond literal interpretation. This tension between experiential and doctrinal tawhid remains a defining feature of Sufi theology.

    Metaphysical Challenges: Wahdat al-Wujud and Wahdat al-Shuhud

    Sufi metaphysics introduces two radical concepts that challenge orthodox Islamic theology: wahdat al-wujud (unity of being) and wahdat al-shuhud (unity of witnessing). These ideas, particularly when articulated by figures like Al-Hallaj and Ibn Arabi, were met with fierce opposition, leading to legal rulings that oscillated between tolerance and persecution.

    1. Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being)
    Proposed by Ibn Arabi, wahdat al-wujud asserts that all existence is a single, undifferentiated reality rooted in God. In Fusus al-Hikam, Ibn Arabi states:
    > "The world is the manifestation of the Names of God, and the Names are the world’s essence. He who sees the world sees God, and he who sees God sees the world."

    This doctrine implies that the distinction between God and creation is illusory at the level of ultimate truth. Orthodox scholars, however, viewed this as a denial of God’s transcendence. The Fatimid scholar Al-Sharif al-Jurjani condemned Ibn Arabi’s ideas as "heretical innovation" (bid’ah), arguing that they blurred the line between creator and creation, risking shirk.

    2. Wahdat al-Shuhud (Unity of Witnessing)
    A more moderate position, wahdat al-shuhud (attributed to Ibn Arabi’s later works) asserts that while existence is plural, the witness (shahid) who perceives it is one with God in knowledge and love. Al-Hallaj, executed in 922 CE for declaring "Ana al-Haqq" ("I am the Truth"), embodied this idea in his poetry:
    > *"I am He whom I love, and He whom I love is me.
    > We are two spirits dwelling in one body.
    > If you see me, you see Him, and if you see Him, you see us both."

    Hallaj’s execution underscores the legal risks of Sufi metaphysics. The Abbasid caliph ordered his crucifixion, and orthodox jurists like Al-Qadi al-Nu’man ruled that his statements were blasphemous, as they conflated the human and divine. Yet, Sufis defended Hallaj as a martyr for wahdat al-shuhud, arguing that his experience was a direct encounter with the Divine.

    The legal backlash against such ideas highlights the Sufi struggle to reconcile metaphysical innovation with orthodox constraints. Al-Ghazali, in Ihya Ulum al-Din, attempted to mediate this tension by distinguishing between "exoteric" (zahir) and "esoteric" (batin) interpretations of tawhid*. He wrote:
    > "The Sufi’s tawhid is a matter of the heart, not the tongue. The jurist may condemn the words, but the gnostic (‘arif) understands the reality they point to."

    This distinction became a hallmark of Sufi strategy: claiming that their metaphysics were beyond the scope of legalistic interpretation.

    Fana and Baqa: The Sufi Path of Annihilation and Subsistence

    Central to Sufi spirituality is the concept of fana’ (annihilation in God) and baqa’ (subsistence in God), a paradoxical journey where the self dissolves into the Divine only to emerge transformed. This process is not a literal dissolution but a metaphysical state described in Rumi’s Masnavi as the ultimate goal of the spiritual path.
    *"O you who seek the Truth, know that the seeker must first die to the self before being reborn in God.
    Fana’ is the death of the ego, and baqa’ is the life of the Divine in the heart.
    When the lover disappears in the Beloved, he finds himself more fully than before."
    —Jalal al-Din Rumi, Masnavi, Book VI, Couplet 2560*
    Rumi elaborates that fana’ is not an end but a transition. The Sufi does not cease to exist but transcends the limitations of the ego to experience unity with God. This is illustrated in the story of the dervish who, upon achieving fana’, is asked, "Where is God now?" He replies, "God is where the seeker is no longer."

    Orthodox scholars often misunderstood fana’ as a denial of the self, akin to heretical forms of asceticism. Al-Ghazali, however, clarified in Ihya Ulum al-Din that fana’ was a spiritual state, not a negation of existence:
    > "The annihilation (fana’) spoken of by the Sufis is the annihilation of the self’s dominion over the heart, not the annihilation of the self itself. It is the death of the lower self (nafs) so that the higher self (ruh) may live."

    This distinction was crucial in Sufi polemics, as it allowed them to frame fana’ as a return to the original human state—created in the image of God—rather than a rejection of creation.

    Sharia and Tariqa: The Sufi Synthesis of Law and Spirituality

    Sufism’s relationship with sharia (Islamic law) is complex, often framed as a dynamic between the exoteric (zahir) and esoteric (batin) dimensions of Islam. While orthodox scholars viewed sharia as the sole path to salvation, Sufis argued that it was a means to an end—the end being the direct experience of God (ma’rifah). This led to the concept of tariqa (the spiritual path), which was seen as the inner dimension of sharia.

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    Practices and Rituals: From Asceticism to Dervish Orders

    Sufi practices evolved as a dynamic interplay between solitary discipline and communal devotion, reflecting the duality of human spiritual experience—one rooted in ascetic withdrawal and the other in ecstatic union. Early Sufi rituals emphasized riyadat al-nafs (mortification of the self) through fasting, solitude, and silence, while later traditions integrated collective rituals such as dhikr (remembrance) and sama (spiritual music and dance). These practices were not merely symbolic but served as vehicles for inner transformation, bridging the gap between the visible and the invisible. The development of dervish orders formalized these rituals into structured paths, each with distinct methods to cultivate divine love and self-purification.

    The transition from individual asceticism to organized communal rituals marked a pivotal shift in Sufism’s evolution. While early practitioners like Hasan of Basra (d. 728 CE) and Rabi’a al-Adawiyya (d. 801 CE) focused on personal struggle against the ego, later orders such as the Qadiriyya, Naqshbandiyya, and Mevlevi incorporated collective ceremonies to foster spiritual unity. These rituals—ranging from silent meditation to rhythmic chanting and whirling—became integral to Sufi identity, embodying the principle that divine presence could be accessed through both stillness and movement.

    Development of Sufi Rituals: From Solitude to Communal Devotion

    The earliest Sufi practices were shaped by the desert ascetics of the Islamic Golden Age, who drew inspiration from Christian monks and Jewish mystics. These individuals sought to purify their souls through extreme austerity, including prolonged fasting, sleep deprivation, and isolation in cemeteries or mountain caves. The goal was to weaken the ego (nafs) and strengthen the connection to the Divine, a process documented in the writings of al-Junayd (d. 910 CE), who described riyadat al-nafs as a "warfare against the self."

    By the 12th century, Sufi rituals began incorporating communal elements, particularly dhikr, which involved the repetitive recitation of divine names (Allah, Muhammad, Hayy, Qayyum) in unison. This practice, later systematized by orders like the Chishtiyya and Suhrawardiyya, transformed solitude into collective devotion. The shift was not merely organizational but theological—emphasizing that spiritual realization was both individual and communal. The dhikr sessions often included rhythmic breathing (nafas), hand-clapping, or instrumental accompaniment to induce a trance-like state (hal), where participants experienced the dissolution of self (fana) and union with the Divine (baqa).

    The Mevlevi Order, founded by Jalaluddin Rumi’s (d. 1273 CE) disciples in the 13th century, epitomized this evolution by institutionalizing sama as a ritualized performance. Unlike earlier ascetic practices, sama combined music, dance (notably the whirling dervishes), and poetry to evoke spiritual ecstasy. Historical accounts from Ottoman courts describe these performances as elaborate spectacles, where dervishes in white robes would spin in a counterclockwise motion, symbolizing the soul’s ascent toward divine unity. The use of ney (reed flute) and Sufi poetry, such as Rumi’s Mathnawi, further deepened the ritual’s transformative power.

    Comparative Analysis: Ascetic vs. Ecstatic Sufi Practices

    Sufi orders developed distinct ritual frameworks, often categorized along a spectrum from ascetic restraint to ecstatic expression. Below is a comparative table highlighting key differences between these traditions:
    Aspect Ascetic Orders (e.g., Qadiriyya, Khalwatiyya) Ecstatic Orders (e.g., Mevlevi, Bektashi, Chishtiyya)
    Primary Goal Self-purification through discipline; suppression of desires to attain divine proximity. Union with the Divine through ecstatic states; dissolution of self in love (ishq).
    Key Practices
    • Prolonged fasting (sawm) beyond obligatory Ramadan.
    • Silent meditation (muraqaba) in isolation.
    • Recitation of the Quran without melodic chanting (tajwid).
    • Use of khiraq (patched robes) as a symbol of detachment.
    • Rhythmic chanting of dhikr with hand movements or instruments.
    • Whirling (semah) in the Mevlevi order, symbolizing cosmic unity.
    • Ecstatic dancing (raqs) in Bektashi rituals, often accompanied by drumming.
    • Consumption of ayran (yogurt drink) or halva in Chishtiyya gatherings as communal acts.
    Spiritual States Induced Calm, focused awareness (dhikr without movement); gradual spiritual refinement. Trance (hal), tears, laughter, or loss of consciousness (ghayba).
    Historical Context Flourished in urban centers and rural retreats; aligned with early Sufi mystics like al-Junayd. Developed in courtly and nomadic settings; patronized by rulers like Mevlana Rumi (Ottoman sultans) and Babur (Mughal emperors).
    Symbolism Minimalism; emphasis on inner struggle over external display. Vibrant symbolism (e.g., the dervish’s hat representing the tomb, the robe representing the shroud).
    The contrast between these practices reflects Sufism’s adaptability to cultural and psychological needs. Ascetic rituals appealed to those seeking gradual spiritual growth, while ecstatic practices resonated with individuals drawn to immediate, transformative experiences. Both, however, shared the underlying aim of transcending the material world to attain proximity to the Divine.

    Step-by-Step Guide to a Dhikr Session

    A dhikr session is a structured communal ritual designed to focus the mind on divine remembrance through repetition, rhythm, and collective energy. The following steps outline a typical dhikr in a Sufi order, such as the Naqshbandiyya or Chishtiyya:

    1. Preparation of the Space
    The gathering takes place in a khanaqah (Sufi lodge) or a designated area cleared of distractions. Participants sit in a circle (halqa) facing the sheikh (spiritual leader), symbolizing equality and unity. Candles or lanterns may be lit to create a sacred atmosphere.

    2. Opening Invocation (Awwal)
    The sheikh begins with a supplication (du’a) for divine blessings and protection. This may include recitations from the Quran, such as Surah Al-Ikhlas or verses from the Mathnawi. The purpose is to purify the gathering and set the intention for the session.

    3. Rhythmic Breathing and Hand Movements
    The sheikh initiates the rhythmic pattern, often starting with the phrase "La ilaha illallah" (There is no god but God). Participants repeat the phrase in unison, synchronizing their breathing with the rhythm. Hand movements vary by order:

  • Naqshbandiyya: Hands are held over the heart, fingers slightly apart.
  • Chishtiyya: Hands may be raised and lowered in a wave-like motion.
  • Mevlevi: Clapping or striking the chest in time with the chant.

    • 4. Incorporation of Instruments
    In some orders, instruments like the rebab (spike fiddle), ney (flute), or duff (drum) accompany the chanting. The music serves to deepen concentration and induce a meditative state. The tempo may accelerate gradually to heighten the spiritual experience.

    5. Transition to Silent Dhikr or Hal (Spiritual State)

    Sufism stands as a testament to the soul’s capacity for divine encounter, offering a path that marries intellectual rigor with emotional depth. From its origins in the spiritual crises of the Abbasid era to its institutionalization through orders like the Chishti and Naqshbandi, Sufism has consistently challenged conventional theology while enriching Islamic culture with poetry, music, and philosophical inquiry. Its core principles—tawhid, fana, and the pursuit of ethical perfection—remain relevant, addressing universal questions about existence, love, and the nature of reality. Whether through the whirling dervishes of Konya or the quiet contemplation of a murid under a murshid, Sufism invites seekers to transcend the self and merge with the infinite. As a living tradition, it bridges the sacred and the secular, proving that spirituality is not merely a doctrine but a transformative journey.

    FAQ

    What is Sufism in Islam?

    Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam, focusing on spiritual purification, divine love, and direct experience of God (Allah). It emphasizes inner reflection, asceticism, and devotion through practices like dhikr (remembrance of God), meditation, and poetry. Sufi orders (tariqas) guide followers in spiritual growth under a spiritual mentor (sheikh). It’s not a separate sect but a path within mainstream Islamic tradition.

    What is Sufism according to Martin Lings?

    Martin Lings (Abdur Rahman ibn Khalifa) described Sufism as the "inner dimension of Islam," where the believer seeks to purify the heart and attain nearness to God through love and surrender. He viewed it as a universal spiritual path, emphasizing unity with the Divine (tawhid) and the transformation of the soul. Lings’ works often highlight Sufism’s harmony with Islamic law (Sharia) and its focus on divine beauty (huriya).

    What is Sufism, and what are its salient features?

    Sufism is an Islamic spiritual tradition centered on achieving closeness to God through mystical practices. Key features include dhikr (repetition of God’s name), zikr (meditation), and tasawwuf (self-discipline). It values love for God, humility, and service to others, often expressed through poetry, music, and communal gatherings. Sufis also revere saints (awliya) as spiritual guides.

    Where can I find Martin Lings’ writings on Sufism in PDF format?

    Martin Lings’ works on Sufism, such as What is Sufism? and Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources, are available as free PDFs on academic sites like Archive.org or Project Gutenberg. Paid copies may be found on platforms like Amazon or Google Books. Check university libraries or Sufi organizations for authorized digital copies.

    What is Sufism in Islam, explained in Urdu?

    Sufism (تسویف) ہے اسلام کا روحانی اور روحانیت پر مبنی راستہ جو اللہ کے ساتھ قریبیاں حاصل کرنے پر زور دیتا ہے۔ یہ ذکر (اللہ کا ذکر)، ریاضت (خود پر قابو)، اور محبت کے ذریعے روحانی ترقی پر کام کرتا ہے۔ مشائخ (روہانی رہنما) کے تحت تریقہ (سوفی سilsilas) میں شامل ہونے سے روہانی تعلیمات حاصل ہوتی ہیں۔

    How do you say "Sufism" in Urdu?

    Sufism in Urdu is called "تسویف" (Tasawwuf) or "صوفیانیت" (Sufiyaniat). The term Sufi (صوفی) refers to a follower of this path. The word tasawwuf derives from the Arabic root suf (صوف), meaning wool, symbolizing the ascetic lifestyle of early Sufis.

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